Norse mythology is the inspiration for many books, films and games of our time. However, it is not a unified religion or cultural practice. If you would like to gain an overview of the origins, history and content of Scandinavian mythology, you have come to the right place.
Important Scandinavian gods
- Odin/Wodan – Father of the gods, god of war
- Thor/Donar – God of thunder and weather
- Loki – Aesir god, role controversial
- Heimdall – Guardian of Bifröst
- Hel – Ruler of the realm of the dead
- Freya – Goddess of love and marriage
- Freyr/Frey/Yngvi – Ancestor of the Swedish kings
- Balder – God of light
What does Norse mythology mean?
Stone tablets inscribed with Old Norse runes serve as a source for researchers, among other things.
Norse mythology refers to the entire mythological world of the peoples who lived in what is now Scandinavia before Christianisation. This means that it does not refer to a single religion as we understand the term today. As Scandinavia is a large area and was neither linguistically nor culturally homogeneous, rituals and beliefs varied from place to place. Sources in Germanic languages are also rare.
This is why there are often different versions of the names of gods. This can be seen, for example, in the famous gods Odin and Thor, who were called Wodan and Donar in Germanic. It should also be borne in mind that, unlike the Catholic and Protestant churches, there was no institution that defined the pantheon and religious practices.
Norse guardian spirits and gods
Research today assumes that paganism can be divided into two areas: belief in guardian spirits and belief in gods. Guardian spirits were primarily believed to live in special places in nature or to appear in the form of animals, while gods were believed to appear in human form.
Vikings had a strong love for games involving chance and skill, often playing with dice made from bone, wood, or antler. Archaeological finds show these games were common at social gatherings like feasts, where betting on outcomes added excitement. Although detailed records are limited, gambling was clearly part of Viking culture as a way to take risks and enjoy competition.
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History of the Norse religions
2200-800 BC: Bronze Age
1500-1300 BC: First sources of shamanic rituals
The first sources documenting the practice of sun and fertility cults date back to 1500-1300 BC. They provide clues as to what early pre-Christian culture may have looked like in the Scandinavian countries. Rock carvings from this period, which have survived to this day, are particularly common.
1500-1000 BC: Cremation
Cremation, which is believed to have been practised in the second millennium BC, is seen as further evidence of religious practices. It is believed that this served to free the soul from the body and prepare it for life in the afterlife. Sources include urn finds from this period.
1000 BC-800 AD: Different sources
400 BC: Ship burials
Around 400 BC, a change in burial practices can be observed. People, especially those of higher social standing, were buried in their full regalia on a ship filled with valuable gifts. As in ancient Greece, coins were often placed in the mouth of the deceased, possibly to pay for the ‘journey’ to the afterlife.
0-100 AD: First written sources
The first written sources date back to the first century AD. The descriptions by the Roman historian Tacitus are particularly noteworthy in this context. However, the votive stones of Germanic soldiers have also been preserved and often contain short messages.
5th century AD: Oldest depiction of the Midgard Serpent in Lyngby
The oldest known depiction of the Midgard Serpent, a snake lying around the world and biting its own tail, comes from a medallion from the 5th century AD found in Lyngby. Further depictions can also be found in the 8th and 12th centuries, for example.
6th century AD: Tradition of Procopius
Another important source comes from the historian Procopius, who wrote in the 6th century AD that the inhabitants of what is now Norway worshipped gods and spirits in nature and were connected to them in an important sacrificial tradition. Ares, or Tyr, is named as the supreme god. It is therefore assumed that he could be a precursor to Odin.
800-1300 AD: Skalds and Icelandic sagas
From 900 AD: Skaldic poetry and establishment of the warrior class
It is believed that a large part of the mythological world did not emerge until the 9th century AD. This is because many myths originate from skaldic poetry and the warrior class. According to historical research, the latter only developed from the 9th century onwards. However, it is also assumed that many elements that were taken up had already been circulating beforehand, as earlier sources show.
900-1000 AD: Early mentions in Icelandic sagas
As early as 1000 AD, the first Icelandic sagas mentioned figures from Norse mythology. The Egils saga from 934 AD is particularly noteworthy. It contains a curse that mentions Odin, Frey and Njörd. The Skírnismál, a song about the gods from the Song Edda, also contains curses invoking Odin, Thor and Frey.
13th century AD: The famous Eddas
Particularly famous Icelandic sagas are the ‘Elder Edda’, the ‘Song Edda’ and, based on this, the “Snorra” or ‘Prosa Edda’ by Snorri Sturluson. Much of what is believed today about Norse mythology comes from the Snorra Edda. However, it should be noted that this dates from a time when Christianity had already been widespread in Scandinavia for about 200 years. The famous family feuds described in the Edda also date from a time two centuries before it was written. Therefore, it cannot be said with certainty how accurately the Snorra Edda reflects mythological practice.
Christianisation of Scandinavia
1000-1300 AD: Process of Christianisation
The Christianisation of Scandinavia happened mainly between 1000 and 1300 AD. It started in Denmark and spread to Norway, Sweden, and Iceland. Some kings, like Hákon I and Óláfr I Trygvasson and Óláfr II of Norway, played key roles. Trade and cultural ties with Central Europe were also important. Researchers believe Celtic slaves, who helped raise children, influenced this process too.
Sources: How do we know what Norse mythology was like?
The sources from which we know what Norse mythology was like today come only partly from archaeological artefacts. The translation of Old Norse runes, the so-called Icelandic sagas (Icelandic term for certain stories from the Middle Ages) and Roman historiography also passed down our knowledge of the gods and worlds.
What has actually been handed down comes more from skalds at the royal court. It is therefore not entirely clear to what extent these ideas were widespread among the population and which gods were worshipped and how.
The Snorra Edda
Another source that is often consulted is the so-called Snorra Edda. The author, Snorri Sturluson, was a 12th-century Icelandic poet who wrote some of the most important Old Norse sources today.
These include the so-called Song Edda. For this reason, the Edda that we use as a source for facts about Norse mythology is often referred to as the Prose Edda to distinguish it from other sources. The motivation for this was to preserve Norse myths, as Snorri feared that they might be lost through the Christianisation of the North.
We should bear in mind that the Snorra Edda is not an accurate description of what people believed or practised in their everyday lives. Instead, you will find more skaldic tradition here. However, it is precisely this that forms the basis of what we know today about Norse mythology.
Practising pagan customs in Scandinavia
It is difficult to determine exactly what was practised and how this related to the mythology that has been handed down to us today. Even though artefacts dating back to the Bronze Age have been found, for example, it has not yet been possible to conclusively determine which entities were worshipped at which times.
The practice of pagan beliefs in Scandinavia varied greatly from place to place.
It is believed that shamans practised their craft and that there was a lively fertility cult at times, which also involved offerings.
So-called votive stones, i.e. stones dedicated to deities or revered personalities, have also been found. However, their inscriptions are so short and often incomprehensible without prior knowledge that they are often not a good source for historical research.
In addition, there are local and social differences. Take Iceland, for example: it is believed that Thor was particularly revered by farmers as the god of thunder, fertility, rain and wind. Freyr was also worshipped by Icelandic farmers and was believed to watch over livestock, especially horses and pigs. Odin, who is now considered the father of the gods, is not believed to have been worshipped in Iceland at all.
Worlds: From Midgard to Hel
The mythical world was divided into nine worlds, each inhabited and ruled by different beings. The world of the gods and mortals was connected by a bridge. This rainbow bridge was called Bifröst. Below are some of the important worlds in Norse mythology:
Midgard: The world of humans
Midgard is the world where humans live. It is surrounded by a sea, the World Sea, where the so-called Midgard Serpent lives. If you were to draw a map, Midgard would be in the centre, with the other worlds spread around it.
Asgard: The world of the gods
Asgard is home to the gods, or more precisely, the Aesir clan. This world is divided into different areas ruled by different gods.
The realm of the dead, Hel
The realm of the dead lies beneath the world of humans and is guarded by the goddess of death, Hel. Her upper body is that of a beautiful woman, while her lower body is just a skeleton. This symbolises the transience of all life.
Jötunheim and Utgard: The world of giants
Utgard is home to giants and all kinds of evil creatures who are waiting to attack on Ragnarök, the day of the battle between the gods and humans.
Ragnarök
The term Ragnarök comes from Old Norse and means ‘fate of the gods’. It is a prophecy of the end of the world, which originates from the poem Völuspá, written around 1000 AD. It consists of a three-year battle between the gods and the giants and the three-year Fimbulwinter before the world finally comes to an end.
Other important places and events in the mythical world
- Vanaheim (Germanised, actually Vanaheimr): Home of the Vanir, the family of gods
- Ljosalfheim (also Álfheimr): Home of the light elves and presumably of Freyr
- Svartalfheim: Home of the dwarves and nature spirits
- Muspelheim: Realm of fire in the south
- Niflheim: Ice world in the north
- Yggdrasil, the tree of life, also called the world ash tree: A tree that spreads across all nine worlds and symbolises their entirety
- Valhalla: The destination of all warriors after death. Here they wait and train together with Odin for the day of Ragnarök.
- Ragnarök: The end of the world, triggered by the battle between gods and giants. Afterwards, however, a new world is to emerge.
Gods and other mythical beings
The Aesir: The warlike race of gods
A wooden statue of Thor in Gothenburg’s Natural History Museum
The Aesir are the younger race of gods and are characterised in the Snorra Edda as warlike and strong.
They lost the war against the Vanir, but gained equality and sent Hönir, Odin’s constant companion, to the Vanir as a guarantee of peace.
They are not immortal, but remain young with the help of the goddess Iðunn, who is responsible for immortality and youth.
Which gods belong to the Aesir?
- Odin/Wodan: Father of the gods, god of war and the dead
- Frigg: Odin’s wife
- Thor/Donar: God of thunder and weather
- Loki: Negative role in Ragnarök, but original role disputed
- Hel: Goddess of the underworld
- Heimdall: Guardian of the Bifröst
- Saga: The goddess of poetry
The Vanir: Gods of fertility and prosperity
Although the Vanir won the battle against the Aesir, they agreed to equal rights. In a hostage exchange after the War of the Vanir, they sent the twins Freya and Frey and the sea god Njörðr to the Aesir. Their home is Wanaheim and they were primarily regarded as gods of fertility and prosperity. They are also immortal unless killed.
Which gods belong to the Vanir?
- Freyr: Ancestral god of the Swedish kings, also stands for peace and fertility
- Freya: The goddess of love, marriage and fertility
- Njörðr: The god of wind and sea
Conclusion
The fact that Norse mythology is so complicated and full of different stories shows how rich Scandinavian society was in the past. It was never just one religion. Over hundreds of years, different groups of people put together a mix of traditions and stories from their own area. There are powerful gods in the stories, such as Odin, Thor, and Freya. There are also strange places, such as Midgard, Asgard, and Hel. A large part of what we know now comes from sources that came after Christianity, like the Prose Edda and the Icelandic sagas. The myth keeps alive old ideas about reincarnation, birth, death, and war.
Fertility cults, ancestor worship, and Odin’s rites are only a few of the many ways that Norse beliefs affected ordinary life and the natural world. Christianity expanded throughout Scandinavia in the 1300s, but the region’s myths and stories still have an effect on people today through literature, movies, and TV series. Norse mythology shows how powerful stories can be in shaping our worldview and keeping our interest. It also shows how the spiritual and social goals of early Scandinavian nations were important.